Tropane and Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Edible Flowers and Flower-Derived Foods: A Food Safety Perspective

Abstract

The consumption of edible flowers has gained increasing global attention, driven by the demand for natural and functional foods. Edible flowers are consumed in various forms, including fresh, dried, or as ingredients in derived products such as infusions, dietary supplements, and honey. Their growing popularity is associated not only with their ability to enhance sensory properties, such as aroma, color, and flavor, but also with their potential health-promoting effects. Nevertheless, their consumption entails safety concerns related to possible contamination with pesticide residues, heavy metals, insects, microorganisms, and naturally occurring toxic compounds. Among these, tropane alkaloids (TAs) and pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) represent major toxicological concerns. These alkaloids may be detected even in non-producing species due to cross-contamination in the field, horizontal transfer through soil, or pollination by bees that have previously visited TA- or PA-producing plants. This review addresses the risks associated with the consumption of edible flowers and flower-derived products, with particular emphasis on studies published since 2018. It provides an overview of the occurrence of TAs and PAs in fresh flowers, floral infusions, dietary supplements, and honey. Furthermore, it summarizes the analytical methodologies employed, including sample preparation and detection techniques, and compiles the reported concentrations of these alkaloids. The evidence presented highlights the need for continued investigation to establish reliable risk assessments and ensure consumer safety.