Insights into the influence of feed impurities on catalytic performance in the solvent-free dimerization of renewable levulinic acid

Abstract

Bio-jet fuel precursors can be produced from the solvent-free aldol dimerization of levulinic acid. The influence of the most common impurities accompanying the levulinic acid produced in lignocellulosic biorefineries (sulfuric acid, water, formic acid, and furfural) has been studied on the catalytic performance of different kinds of heterogeneous acid catalysts: (i) sulfonic acid-based materials, such as propyl-sulfonic acid-modified SBA-15, and the sulfonic acid resin Amberlyst-70, and (ii) commercial acid zeolites, such as H-Beta-19 and H-Beta-75. Furfural is the impurity that produces the greatest detrimental effect on the performances of all the catalysts tested. Catalyst deactivation is observed due to the formation of organic deposits on the catalyst surface (identified by TGA and acid-base titration), phenomenon that is accentuated when furfural is present in the reaction medium. Amberlyst-70 can recover almost totally the initial catalytic activity with a regeneration step based on washing with an acid solution under reflux. For Beta zeolites, the original activity of the catalyst can be easily and totally recovered through a regeneration process by calcination. H-Beta-19 zeolite is shown as the most suitable catalyst for the aldol dimerization of renewable LA, as its activity is not significantly affected by the presence of most of the impurities in the levels herein analyzed. In addition, a simultaneous mixture of all the impurities produces a synergistic effect, even improving the initial activity of the H-Beta-19 zeolite as a consequence of the sulfuric acid contribution to the catalytic effect.